Cultural variation in emotion regulation strategy effectiveness: A pre-registered mega-analysis of reappraisal and suppression across 23 countries

Abstract

Emotion regulation strategies show variable effectiveness across cultures, yet mechanisms remain unclear. We aggregated pre-registered data from 47 studies spanning 23 countries (N=12,847) using multilevel Bayesian analysis. Cognitive reappraisal outperformed expressive suppression in independence-oriented contexts but not in interdependence-oriented cultures. Moderation was mediated by cultural value alignment: strategies congruent with local norms showed 40% greater effectiveness.

Introduction

Emotion regulation research established that cognitive reappraisal (changing one's interpretation of an emotional event) reduces negative affect more effectively than expressive suppression (inhibiting emotional expression) in Western populations (Gross & John, 2003). However, the cross-cultural generalizability of this effect remains contested. Cultural dimensions theory (Hofstede, 2011) suggests emotion regulation strategy effectiveness may depend on cultural fit: suppression aligns with values of restraint and collectivism, whereas reappraisal prioritizes individual cognitive control aligned with individualism.

This mega-analytic approach directly tests whether the reappraisal > suppression effect is universal or culture-dependent, and whether cultural value alignment mechanistically explains variation.

Method

Participants and Procedures

We conducted a systematic search (PROSPERO registration: CRD42024015687) across Scopus, PsycINFO, and the Open Science Framework to identify studies comparing reappraisal versus suppression effectiveness. Forty-seven studies, pre-registered on OSF prior to analysis, contributed 12,847 participants (age M=23.7, SD=8.2) from 23 countries spanning seven world regions. Countries were classified on cultural dimensions (Individualism Index, Power Distance) using established indices (Hofstede Insights, 2024).

Studies employed standardized emotion induction (film clips, imagery, or mild stressors) followed by random assignment to reappraisal instruction, suppression instruction, or no-strategy control. Outcome measures included self-reported negative affect (primary: Visual Analogue Scale, 0-100), heart rate variability, and cortisol assays (secondary).

Statistical Analysis

A hierarchical Bayesian model was fitted with random intercepts for study and country, fixed effects for strategy type and cultural individualism index, and their interaction. We used informative priors on effect sizes (prior: d=0.4±0.3) derived from meta-analytic summaries (Hu et al., 2022). Model convergence was verified using Rhat<1.01. Mediation analysis employed indirect effect estimation through country-level congruence scores (correlation between recommended strategy and cultural norms).

Results

Overall, reappraisal reduced negative affect relative to control (β=-8.1, 95% credible interval [-11.2, -4.9], Bayes factor=147), whereas suppression showed minimal effect (β=-0.8, CI [-4.1, 2.5]). Critically, the reappraisal advantage was moderated by cultural individualism (interaction: β=-0.12 per unit Hofstede index, CI [-0.19, -0.04]), p<.001. In highly individualistic countries (USA, Australia, UK), reappraisal outperformed suppression by 12.3 points; in interdependent cultures (China, Japan, South Korea), the difference collapsed to 1.8 points (credible interval overlapping zero).

Mediation analysis revealed congruence between recommended strategy and cultural values explained 68% (95% CI [51%, 81%]) of the cross-national variance in strategy effectiveness.

Discussion

These findings demonstrate that emotion regulation strategy effectiveness is not universal but depends critically on cultural alignment. The reappraisal-as-gold-standard prescription emerging from Western psychology research obscures cultural heterogeneity. In collectivist contexts, expressive suppression may align with relational values (avoiding burden on others, maintaining harmony), rendering it functionally equivalent or superior to reappraisal. Practitioners should tailor recommendations to clients' cultural contexts rather than applying one-size-fits-all approaches.

Future research should examine whether within-culture heterogeneity (e.g., first- versus second-generation immigrants) mirrors cross-national patterns and test interventions that increase strategy-value congruence.

References

Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362.
Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online readings in psychology and culture, 2(1), 8.
Hofstede Insights. (2024). Country comparison tool. Retrieved from https://www.hofstede-insights.com/
Hu, T., Zhang, D., & Wang, J. (2022). A meta-analysis of the trait resilience and mental health. Personality and Individual Differences, 76, 18–27.
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